The synthesis of glycogen in the body is driven by the enzyme glycogen synthase which uses a uridine diphosphate (UDP) leaving group. Ī simplified example of condensation showing the alpha and beta classification. Spatial positions of backbone atoms can be reconstructed from the positions of alpha carbons using computational tools for the backbone reconstruction. For this reason, the primary structure of the amino acids in the polypeptide backbone is the map of the final structure of a protein, and it therefore indicates its biological function. Further interactions between residues of the individual amino acids form the protein's tertiary structure. Like almost all polymers, protein fold and twist, forming into the secondary structure, which is rigidified by hydrogen bonding between the carbonyl oxygens and amide hydrogens in the backbone, i.e. The sequence of the amino acids in the polypeptide backbone is known as the primary structure of the protein. Proteins are characterized by amide linkages (-N(H)-C(O)-) formed by the condensation of amino acids. Major families of biopolymers are polysaccharides (carbohydrates), peptides, and polynucleotides. Some uncommon but illustrative inorganic polymers include polythiazyl ((SN)x) with alternating S and N atoms, and polyphosphates ((PO 3 −) n). The silicon atoms bear two substituents, usually methyl as in the case of polydimethylsiloxane. Their backbond is composed of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms, i.e. Siloxanes are a premier example of an inorganic polymer, even though they have extensive organic substituents. Polydimethylsiloxane is classified as an " inorganic polymer", because the backbone lacks carbon. Crystallization in its turn affects the optical properties of the polymers, its optical band gap and electronic levels. polythiophenes) in thin films and in solution. The polymers with rigid backbones are prone to crystallization (e.g. For example, in polysiloxanes (silicone), the backbone chain is very flexible, which results in a very low glass transition temperature of −123 ☌ (−189 ☏ 150 K). its flexibility, determines the properties of the polymer (such as the glass transition temperature). Polymers are often classified according to the elements in the main chains. In polymer science, the polymer chain or simply backbone of a polymer is the main chain of a polymer. Selected which leads to the simplest representation of the In this minireview, we summarize recent advances in the understanding of the mechanism of action of these molecules, and discuss their use as therapeutics to improve metabolic homeostasis or their detection as early biomarkers of incipient insulin resistance.That linear chain to which all other chains, long or short or both,Ĭould equally be considered to be the main chain, that one is Conversely, another butyrate-related molecule, alpha-hydroxybutyrate, has been found to be an early predictor of insulin resistance and glucose intolerance. Such small molecules include the bacterially produced short chain fatty acid butyric acid, its chemically produced derivative 4-phenylbutyric acid, the main ketone body D-beta-hydroxybutyrate - synthesized by the liver - and the recently discovered myokine beta-aminoisobutyric acid. While weight gain results from a negative balance between the energy expenditure and calorie intake, recent research has demonstrated that several small organic molecules containing a four-carbon backbone can modulate this balance by favoring energy expenditure, and alleviating endoplasmic reticulum stress and oxidative stress. INSERM - Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale : U1060 (101, rue de Tolbiac, 75013 Paris - France) StructId : 303623Ībstract : The increasing incidence of obesity worldwide and its related cardiometabolic complications is an urgent public health problem.HCL - Hospices Civils de Lyon (3 Quai des Célestins.
INSA - Institut National des Sciences Appliquées (France) StructId : 301232.INSA Lyon - Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Lyon (20 Avenue Albert Einstein,Ħ9621 Villeurbanne cedex - France) StructId : 219748.Université de Lyon (92 rue Pasteur - CS 30122, 69361 Lyon Cedex 07 - France) StructId : 301088.UCBL - Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 : UM92 (43, boulevard du 11 novembre 1918, 69622 Villeurbanne cedex - France) StructId : 194495.INRA - Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique : UMR1397 (France) StructId : 92114.IMBL, La Doua - 11 Avenue Jean Capelle - 69621 Villeurbanne Cedex - France) StructId : 139835 1 CarMeN - Cardiovasculaire, métabolisme, diabétologie et nutrition (Faculté de Médecine Lyon Sud - BP 12 - 165 Chemin du Grand Revoyet - 69921 Oullins cedex INSA, Bât.
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